Efficient Electrical House Wiring Techniques

Are you someone who has the knowledge and skills to carry out a house electrical wiring job and is looking for wiring plans or tips on how to more effectively carry out the task? Dealing with electricity is no simple task and is, hence, better left to the pros. However, given that you have the know-how in electrical house wiring tips, you can take advantage in learning these basic tips in installing electrical wiring.

First, it's a fact that a soundly-planned electrical house wiring layout is one of the secrets to the overall orderliness in a home and efficiency of electrical wiring. Notice how badly laid out plans can cause ugly cables to protrude around corners or become noticeable in some areas.

Steps in installing electrical house wiring

Similar to other electrical installations, there are electrical house wiring protocols that electricians follow vis-à-vis home construction. This is purportedly to prevent ugly cables from sticking out �C an occurrence that is not uncommon in poorly laid-out electrical plans.

Your first consideration is to identify the unique wiring needs in each room, such as the home entertainment system, ceiling wiring for bedroom electrical fans, wiring shed and patios for electricity, among others.

Most electrical house wiring projects are done when a house construction is towards completion, that is, the doors, windows, and roof have been installed. It is during this phase that installing electrical wirings is best accomplished. Wall and ceiling lighting are also preferably installed during this phase, or at least, laid out so that all switches and sockets can be installed before dry walling.

Electrical wiring considerations

Switches

Consider using several switches for a single light for the first and second levels of your home. This is for ease of use and helps reduce utility bills because, after all, you only get to use all the light at the same time sparingly. It's also best to install dual switches for fans and lighting.

You might want to coordinate with the electrician if it's better to use photoelectric cell for use on the outside portions of the house as well as in pathways. There should also be a separate type of electrical installation around the garage and the back of your house. In such case, motion detection sensors optimize the electrical equipment in these areas.

You can anticipate that the family would be using other smaller appliances or electrical equipment would on kitchen counters or in the bathroom, such as blow dryers, electric beaters, electric can openers, etc. Thus, installing additional outlets on these fixtures makes things a lot easier for the entire household. Computers, alarm systems, entertainment rooms, ceiling fans, and the like should have special wiring to prevent short-circuit incidents.

Getting started

If you are working with an architect and electrician, you probably are looking over a plan with all the spec sheets. Make sure to coordinate with these people so you can oversee the construction. The house electrical wiring plan should also meet local standards to obtain a building permit, as required by law.

Most house electrical wiring layouts have been pre-approved by the designated government agencies. Thus, you need to always work closely with the legal bureau as well as the people working on your electrical wiring installation. Furthermore, it is for this reason that house electrical wiring projects should be left to professionals who possess the skills and license to device a plan.

Plans are most likely obscured with electrical jargons, complicated formulas, and codes which only the professionals can decipher. You can save yourself from the dirty work by hiring electricians and working under a layout to keep house electrical wiring as orderly as possible.

The Importance of Earthing Electrical Wiring

When working on an electrical wiring project, one term you will come across is the "earth." The earth is an important concept with electrical wiring because the earth does not carry a current. As such, any electricity will flow to the earth if it escapes from an electric flex or cable. This phenomenon occurs because the neutral wire is purposely connected to the earth in order to help prevent someone from getting shocked by the electricity.

How Does an Electrical Shock Occur?

Getting an electrical shock occurs when you accidentally touch a live conductor. When you do this, the current flows through you and down to the floor. It then goes through the wall through the earth and ends up back in the supply transformer. The current goes back to the supply transformer through one or more of the earth connections that are in the transformer neutral. In effect, you complete the electrical circuit when you touch the live conductor.

Avoiding an Electrical Shock

Obviously, the best way to avoid getting an electrical shock is to avoid touching a live conductor. Sometimes, however, there may be a fault in the wiring that causes a shock to occur. To help prevent faults from occurring all electrical earths of a circuit as well as the conductive parts may be bonded together. This way, if a fault does occur, the conductive parts will be at the same voltage and a shock won't occur.

It is also important to note that water is an excellent conductor of electricity. Therefore, even more care must be taken when installing wiring in places such as the bathroom where water is commonly used. For this reason, there are a number of special rules for bathrooms that have been established by the Institution of Electrical Engineers. Namely, all metal parts in the bathroom have to be connected with an earth cable. This way, it can collect the current and voltage from any leaks and can equalize it.

Getting the Proper Knowledge

Getting an electrical shock is a serious concern when working with electricity. It is also necessary to take certain precautions in order to prevent shock from occurring later if a leak were to occur. Therefore, it is best to leave this type of electrical work to professionals. If you wish to complete earth work on your own, it is a good idea to take an electrical course to help you learn more about electrical wiring and how to properly earth the wires. This way, you can be certain you and your loved ones will be safe.

Common Types of Electrical Wiring Used In Homes

Your home is wired with different types of wire. Each has its specific use to accommodate the load and conditions it is exposed to. Let’s examine what each type is and how it is used in the home’s electrical system.

1. Triplex Wire

Triplex is an aerial cable that the utility company uses to feed the power pole. This wire ties to the wires sticking out of the weather head.

2. Main Feeder Wires
These wires are usually type THHN wire and are rated for 125% of the load required. These are usually black insulated wires coming out of the service weather head.




3. Panel Feed Wires
These wires are also type THHN, like the main feeders. A typical 100-amp service would have a #2 THHN set of wires. They would then be rated at 125 amps. This would protect the wires if the amperage was a full 100 amps.




4. Non-Metallic Sheathed Wire (NM)

This wire, commonly called Romex, is a plastic coated wire that has either two or three conductors and a bare ground wire. This is the typical wiring used in most homes. The rating for this wire is either 15 amps, 20 amps, or 30 amps, depending on the installation.

5. Single Strand Wire

When you home is piped, you’ll have to have another type of wire. Single strand wire is insulated and many of these can be pulled into the same pipe. Normally, you’ll be using THHN wire for this installation.

Best Tips for Electrical Troubleshooting?

Electrical troubleshooting is a standard, logical process of elimination used to determine the root cause of a problem. An electrician normally performs these techniques, but they can be easily learned and completed by the average person. It is important to think about safety first when working with electricity. Check every wire to see if it is live before touching it. Wear rubber-soled boots and be careful to avoid electrocution.

There are three steps to electrical troubleshooting: identify the problem, localize the issue, and repair it. All three steps can be applied to any electrical problem. Electricity connections are fairly simple to understand and can be easily diagnosed.

The first step of electrical troubleshooting is to identify the actual problem. If the electricity is not working, determine if the problem is related to a specific area, or widespread. Widespread electrical outages are the responsibility of the electricity company. Look at the electricity availability in the neighborhood to determine how widespread the issue is.

If the problem is limited to a specific area of your home, go to your . All the in a building is run through a circuit breaker box. The different areas of the home are divided into circuits. Any surge in power supply that exceeds a specific value causes the circuit breaker to activate or trip, which stops the flow of electricity to that area. To correct this, the circuit breaker must be reset or replaced.

To understand how the circuits work, read the electrical schematic drawings. These large drawings provide a map of all the electrical wiring in the home. It will show you which outlets are connected to each other and how the electricity is managed. Using this drawing, you can understand how the wiring is completed. This information is critical when you are using electrical troubleshooting techniques.

Schematic drawings are available for all electrical equipment, buildings, and vehicles. These drawings are mandatory and are used by safety agencies to confirm the correct protections are in place. Localize the issue to the area causing the electrical problem. You can then identify the necessary steps to correct it. Always turn off the main power before attempting any work on electrical systems.

EMF Pollution in the Home

We live our lives literally adrift in a sea of electromagnetic pollution. Most people are aware of the health risks posed by cell phone towers and high-tension power lines. However, very few actually take the time to consider the risks from EMFs created inside the home by house wiring and common household appliances. These days, our homes are filled with electromagnetic pollution, also known as electro-smog.

It’s a real eye-opener to find out what emits EMF pollution in the home. Our overview is a bit lengthy, so please be sure to read all the way to the end for some EMF Pollution Solutions. Here are some of the most common EMF sources.

• Home Wiring. EMFs enter through home wiring in two ways. First, the room where electricity enters the house (where the cable meets an outside wall) can be a source of high EMF pollution. There’s not much you can do about this. Even if the cable were buried, it still would enter the house through the electrical service junction on that wall. If this room is a utility or storage room, then exposure will be limited to the time spent in that room. However, if it enters through a bedroom or recreation room where you spend a lot of time, this can be a cause for concern. Second, the wiring grid of your home carries EMF fields through the walls into every room. Through a principle known as cyclotronic resonance, you are adversely affected by EMFs entering your body through proximity to household electrical wiring. Cyclotronic resonance states that if two lines of AC current come together in a square grid, as in the wiring of a home, energy can be transferred from the spinning electrons (charged particles) in the wiring into the spinning ions (electrolytes) in a person’s nervous system. This will happen if the frequencies are close enough. Our electrical grid is 60 Hz, which is close enough to our biological frequencies for resonance to be established. The human frequency is said to vibrate anywhere from 50 to 70 Hz, according to research. In addition to the EMF fields in the walls, every appliance plugged into your home’s electrical grid emits EMFs.
• Electric blankets and waterbeds. Electric blankets and waterbed heaters are a strong source of EMF pollution. An electric blanket literally wraps you in a cocoon of scattering EMFs. Waterbed heaters are electrical coils winding along the length and width of the waterbed mattress, bathing you in EMFs as you sleep. Since most of us spend up to one third of our lives sleeping, that amounts to huge amounts of time spent exposed to hazardous EMFs. If you must use either of these, let them warm up, and then unplug them before going to sleep. As long as they are plugged in, an electrical field is always present.
• Microwave ovens. Microwave ovens emit two types of radiation: EMFs and Extra Low Frequency (ELF) waves. Studies have linked ELFs to cellular dysfunction and brain effects, such as poor concentration, mood changes, irritability, and dementia. Another reason to avoid microwave ovens is Russian research that shows how microwave cooking can convert protein into carcinogenic substances.
• Computers. It’s not just computer monitors that can emit EMFs. The computer itself is a source of EMFs, which can spill through walls into adjoining rooms. Don’t be fooled by screens that claim to block EMFs from computer monitors. It would take a thick, lead shield to have any effect.
• Laptop computers. Laptops emit very strong EMFs. Laptop computers are not well shielded, and they can expose you to much higher EMFs than desktop models. Additionally, users of laptops are usually connected via wireless networks. These are additional sources of EMF pollution.
• Electric clocks. Electric clocks are often the worst offenders when it comes to EMF exposure. If you keep an electric clock right beside your bed, you are probably exposed to a field equivalent to a power line for six to eight hours every night. If you must use an electric clock, get one with a large readout, and keep it at least four feet from your bed.
• Telephones and answering machines. Phones can emit strong EMF fields from the handset. Portable phones and answering machines have that “wall wart” transformer, which is a source of strong EMFs. Keep these away from your bed.
• Electric razors and hair dryers. These emit high levels of EMFs. Fortunately, they are not a constant source of exposure (you don’t shave and dry your hair all day or all night long).
• Other sources include fluorescent light fixtures, refrigerators, electric heaters, and more. Every appliance that is plugged in to the wall current generates an EMF field.

Our EMF Pollution Solutions

The EarthCalm Scalar Home Protection System provides protection for everyone, anywhere in the home, including the garage and any other buildings on the same electrical meter.

With the EarthCalm Scalar Home Protection System, everything plugged into your home’s electrical system becomes grounded to the Earth’s Schumann Resonance frequency. Since you are in the home, your own biological frequencies become grounded to this healing, calming frequency. This is staggering in its implications. You are not only protected from harmful EMFs, but you are actually transforming your home environment into a sanctuary that promotes health and well-being!

There are two choices in EarthCalm home protection. The first is the EarthCalm Scalar Home Protection System. This is a three-step process that allows you to gradually acclimate to your new environment of calm. As each stage of the three-stage system is plugged in, many people initially feel a sense of calmness and often an alleviation of symptoms such as headaches, stress reactions, and chronic pain levels. This period of adaptation is followed by homeostasis (balance), as the higher level of calmness becomes a new way of being.

Electromotive force

In physics, electromotive force, or most commonly emf , or (occasionally) electromotance is "that which tends to cause current (actual electrons and ions) to flow."

More formally, emf is the external work expended per unit of charge to produce an electric potential difference across two open-circuited terminals. The electric potential difference is created by separating positive and negative charges, thereby generating an electric field. The created electrical potential difference drives current flow if a circuit is attached to the source of emf. When current flows, however, the voltage across the terminals of the source of emf is no longer the open-circuit value, due to voltage drops inside the device due to its internal resistance.

Devices that can provide emf include voltaic cells, thermoelectric devices, solar cells, electrical generators, transformers, and even Van de Graaff generators.

In the case of a battery, charge separation that gives rise to a voltage difference is accomplished by chemical reactions at the electrodes; a voltaic cell can be thought of as having a "charge pump" of atomic dimensions at each electrode, that is:

"A source of emf can be thought of as a kind of charge pump that acts to move positive charge from a point of low potential through its interior to a point of high potential. … By chemical, mechanical or other means, the source of emf performs work dW on that charge to move it to the high potential terminal. The emf ℰ of the source is defined as the work dW done per charge dq: ℰ = dW/dq."

The reactions at the electrode–electrolyte interfaces provide the "seat" of emf for the voltaic cell, that is, these reactions drive the current.In the open-circuit case, charge separation continues until the electrical field from the separated charges is sufficient to arrest the reactions.

In the case of an electrical generator, a time-varying magnetic field inside the generator creates an electric field via electromagnetic induction, which in turn creates an energy difference between generator terminals. Charge separation takes place within the generator, with electrons flowing away from one terminal and toward the other, until, in the open-circuit case, sufficient electric field builds up to make further movement unfavorable. Again the emf is countered by the electrical voltage due to charge separation. If a load is attached, this voltage can drive a current. The general principle governing the emf in such electrical machines is Faraday's law of induction.

A solar cell or photodiode is another source of emf, with light energy as the external power source.


Formal definitions of electromotive force

Inside a source of emf that is open-circuited, the conservative electrostatic field created by separation of charge exactly cancels the forces producing the emf. Thus, the emf has the same value but opposite sign as the integral of the electric field aligned with an internal path between two terminals A and B of a source of emf in open-circuit condition (the path is taken from the negative terminal to the positive terminal to yield a positive emf, indicating work done on the electrons moving in the circuit). Mathematically:

where E_cs is the conservative electrostatic field created by the charge separation associated with the emf, dℓ is an element of the path from terminal A to terminal B, and ‘·’ denotes the vector dot product . This equation applies only to locations A and B that are terminals, and does not apply to paths between points A and B with portions outside the source of emf. This equation involves the electrostatic electric field due to charge separation E_cs and does not involve (for example) any non-conservative component of electric field due to Faraday's law of induction.

In the case of a closed path in the presence of a varying magnetic field , the integral of the electric field around a closed loop may be nonzero; one common application of the concept of emf, known as "induced emf" is the voltage induced in a such a loop. The "induced emf" around a stationary closed path C is:

where now E is the entire electric field, conservative and non-conservative, and the integral is around an arbitrary but stationary closed curve C through which there is a varying magnetic field. Note that the electrostatic field does not contribute to the net emf around a circuit because the electrostatic portion of the electric field is conservative (that is, the work done against the field around a closed path is zero).

This definition can be extended to arbitrary sources of emf and moving paths C:

which is a conceptual equation mainly, because the determination of the "effective forces" is difficult.

Electrical Mechanics and Maths 9.2

Electrical - DC Current flow - Basic Electronics - Resistor Value Test - Simple DC Circuits - Types of Switching - Variable Voltages - Ohm s Law - DC Voltage - DC Current - Series/Parallel Resistors - AC Measurements - AC Voltage and Current - AC The

Electrical - DC Current flow - Basic Electronics - Resistor Value Test - Simple DC Circuits - Types of Switching - Variable Voltages - Ohm s Law - DC Voltage - DC Current - Series/Parallel Resistors - AC Measurements - AC Voltage and Current - AC Theory - RCL Series Circuits - RCL Parallel Circuits - Capacitance - Capacitors - Inductance - Inductors - Impedance - Circuit Theorems - Complex Numbers - DC Power - AC Power - Silicon Controlled Rectifier - Power Supplies - Voltage Regulation - Magnetism - Transformers - Three Phase Systems - Energy Transfer and Cost - SemiConductors - Atomic Structures - Diode Theory - Diode Applications - Transistor Theory - Bipolar Transistor - Transistor Configurations - Active Transistor Circuits - Field Effect Transistors - Mathematics - Number Systems - Number Conversion - Number Types - Roots - Angles and Parallels - Triangle Ratios - Triangle Angles - Percentages - Ratios - Fractions - Vectors - Circle Angles - Laws - Algebra Rules - Algebra - Mathematical Rules - Powers and Indices - Simplifying - Equations - Graphing - Slope and Translation - Curves and Angle Conversion - Personal Finance - Data Analysis - Mechanics - Area - Surface Area and Symmetry - Volume - Compound Measures - Geometry - Motion - computers - Optics - Analogue Multi-meter - Measurement

Troubleshooting and Repairing Electrical Circuits

Electricity travels in a circle. It moves along a "hot" wire toward a light or receptacle, supplies energy to the light or appliance, then returns along the neutral wire to the source. This complete path is a circuit. In house wiring, a circuit usually indicates a group of lights or receptacles connected along such a path.

To map your electrical circuits:
Inside your electrical panel, you may discover that an electrician or previous homeowner has installed notations or lists that tell which circuit breakers or fuses control particular circuits. If your panel doesn't contain a reference like this, it's a good idea to map your circuits so, when the need arises, you can quickly find the right circuit breakers or fuses to shut them off or reset them.

Though the following instructions refer to circuit breakers, the same techniques apply to panels that utilize fuses or other types of disconnect devices.

To keep a circuit record:
If each circuit breaker isn't already numbered inside the electric panel, number them.

Make a list that you can post on the inside of the door. Numbers should correspond to each circuit breaker. After each number, note which devices the breaker controls. For an even more thorough mapping, you can sketch a floor plan and make notes on it that identify the breaker numbers for each light and receptacle throughout the house. Another helpful tip: mark the back of switch and receptacle covers with the circuit breaker's number.

To trace your home's circuits:
This is something you should do in daylight with a helper. Be aware that all of your home's power will be off at times and, when you're done, you'll have to reset clocks, timers, and the like. A helpful hint: receptacles are usually on circuits separate from lighting; major appliances such as furnaces, microwaves, washing machines, electric dryers, and electric ovens often have dedicated circuits.

1) At the electrical panel, turn off all the circuit breakers.

2) Identify any large, double (240-volt) circuit breakers first. Flip one on. Determine which major electrical appliance(s) it supplies by turning on each electric appliance (don't forget equipment such as the furnace and pool pump) until you find the ones that work.

3) Repeat with other large circuit breakers and major appliances.
4) Have a helper plug a small lamp (or electrical device) into a standard room receptacle. (If you're alone, use a radio that's turned on.)
5) Turn breakers on and off until you reach the one that turns on the lamp. Leave that breaker on and have your helper plug the lamp into other nearby receptacles; note all the ones controlled by that breaker.
6) Room lights will go on during this process. Note the circuit breaker that controls each set of lights.
7) Repeat this process with other receptacles.
8) Continue until you've located and noted all receptacle and lighting circuits.

Home electrical circuits may have a number of problems:
* Faulty wiring within the house;
* Too many lamps or appliances on one circuit;
* Defective wall switches or receptacles;
* Defective cords or plugs;
* Defective circuits within appliances.

Short circuits happen when a hot wire touches a neutral or ground wire; the extra current flowing through the circuit causes the breaker to trip or fuse to blow.

How to Safely Test an Electrical Circuit

Whenever you work on an electrical circuit, it is very important to first make sure that the circuit is turned off--not just at the switch, but at the main panel or subpanel that controls the electrical circuit. Then, before working on the circuit, you must check the circuit or device to double-check that it is indeed off.

To safely test an electrical circuit use a circuit tester to ensure no electricity is flowing through. Holding the insulated parts of the probes, touch the bare metal end of the black probe to the grounding conductor or the grounded metal box, and then, while holding the probe there, touch the bare end of the other probe to the terminal or bare wire that is normally "hot" (live). This is typically a black or red wire or a white wire wrapped in black tape to designate that it is on the "hot" side of the circuit. If the circuit is live, the tester will light up (or otherwise signal the presence of electricity, depending on the kind of tester you are using).

Always hold the probes of the tester by the insulation around them. In the event that the right circuit was not turned off, or if the system shorted out, the wires in the circuit could still be hot. Touching wires with your fingers or any metal tool could cause a short circuit and very possibly give you a serious shock.

To test whether a receptacle is live or dead, you don't need to remove the device's faceplate. Simply insert the tester’s probes into the slots, as shown at right. If the tester lights up, the receptacle is still conducting electricity.

Electrical engineering projects for final year

1. Transformer protection panel

2. Working Model of maglev

3. Maximum power point Tracking

4. Motorised wheel Chair

5. Controller of Electrical Vehicale

6. Deregulation of Energy Sector

7. Cathodic protection

8. Radial Feeder protection

9. PLC Based System

10. Numerical Relay

11. Measurement of electrical parameters

12. Variable Frequency Drive

13. 3 Phase Analayzer

14. Modeling and simulation of Congestion management in transmission sector of deregulated electricity market.

15. Electrical Bicycle

16. Survey of Industries in surat

17. Speed Control of D.C shunt motor using four Quadrant Chopper

18. Speed Control of Separately excited D.C motor using µP

19. Cyclo- converter 1- Phase to 1- Phase

20. Digital Filter Design & it’s Application

21. Computer Aided Power Flow Analysis

22. Microstepping of Unipolar Stepper Motor

23. Speed control of 3 - Phase Induction Motor by V / F method using PWM Technique

24. Measurement of inrush current in Transformer

25. Microprocessor based power factor measurement & control

26. 8085 based Protective Relay

27. Microcontroller based Digital Energy Meter

28. Electronic Power Generator using Transistor

29. Measurement of inrush current in Transformer

30. Microstepping of Unipolar Stepper Motor

31. Computer Aided Power Flow Analysis

32. Speed Control of D.C shunt motor using four Quadrant Chopper

33. Microprocessor based power factor measurement & control

34. Cycloconverter 1- Phase to 1- Phase

35. 8085 based Protective Relay

36. Speed Control of Separately excited D.C motor using µP

37. Microcontroller based Digital Energy Meter

38. Speed control of 3 - Phase Induction Motor by V / F method using PWM Technique

39. Digital Filter Design & it’s Application

40. Electrical Bicycle

41. Survey of Industries in surat

42. Electronic Power Generator using Transistor

43. Solar Tracking System

44. Working Model of Solar Power Plant

45. Speed Control of D.C Motor using D.C Drives

46. Prepaid Card Energy Meter

47. Vector Controlled AC Drive

48. Reciprocating Motora. / C Relay

49. Construction & Design of Three phase 1 H.P Motor

50. Micro-controller based differential protection of Transformer

51. Design Optimization of Three phase squirrel cage Induction Motor

52. Speed Control of D.C Motor using Simulation

53. Micro-controller based Control of any electrical Machine

54. Inverter (MOSFET based)

55. V / F Speed Control of Three Phase Induction Motor

56. Linear Induction Motor (Design & Performance, Analysis)

57. PLC Based Boiler Control System

58. Microprocessor based Robot

59. Power Factor correction using Microprocessor

60. 3 phase squirrel cage induction motor design

61. 3 phase squirrel cage induction motor design

62. Speed control of dc shunt motor

63. Protection of 3 phase induction motor

64. Speed control of universal motor using microcontroller

65. Computer Aided Design Of Transformer

66. Microprocessor based Power Meter

67. Microprocessor based Speed Control of Induction Motor

68. Data Acquisition System

69. UPS

70. GSM CONTROLLED DOOR LATCH OPENER WITH SECURITY DIALUP WITH CHANGEABLE TELEPHONE NUMBERS (BASED)

71. POWER GRID CONTROL THROUGH PC

72. i.V.R.S. SYSTEM FOR INDUSTRIAL CONTROL

73. RF CONTROL OF INDUCTION MOTORS AND OTHER INDUSTRIAL

74. LOADS

75. Microcontroller Based G.S.M. controlled Switch With Voice

76. Six Channel Petrochemical Fire Monitoring & Control Station

77. Based Token Number Display With Voice & Security

78. Home/Office Security System (Teleguard)

79. IBM PC HDD,FDD,PRINTER SIGNAL INDICATOR AND FAULT LOCATOR CARDS(SET OF THREE CARDS)

80. MINI LCD SCOPE

81. ELECTRONIC EYE BASED

82. ELECTRONIC EYE BASED WITH EVENT LOGGING ON PC

83. Hotel Power Management Through PC

84. µc Based PT- Temperature Controller

85. Microcontroller Based Code Lock With Security Telephone Dialer

86. REAL TIME CHANNEL DATA LOGGER

87. CH DATA LOGGER THROUGH RADIO LINK

88. Load Shedder

89. Home automation Through P.C.

90. inductance , capacitance and frequency meter.

91. PC TO PC LASER COMMUNICATION

92. PC TO PC FIBER- OPTIC COMMUNICATION

93. BILGE OIL WATER SEPARATOR

94. AUTOMATIC TOLL TAX

95. AUTOMATIC CONTROL OF UNMANNED RAIL GATE

96. AUTO-ANSWERING WITH SECURITY DIAL-UP

97. PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER (PLC)

98. heart beat monitor (BASED)

99. INTELLIGENT SAUNA BATH CONTROL SYSTEM

100. REMOTE MONITORING AND ALARM ON PC USING RADIO LINK

101. EIGHT CHANNEL DATA LOGGER CBASED

102. CONTROL SYSTEM FOR MODERN HOUSE

103. PAIN MONITOR

104. PATIENT MONITORING SYSTEM

105. R.F. CONTROLLED INTELLIGENT ROBOT CAR WITH CORDLESS VIDEO-CAM .SENDS VIDEO & SOUND ON MONITOR/TV CONTINUOUSLY. CAN BE USED FOR SPYING PURPOSE RANGE YARDS RADIAL . BASED ON MICROCONTROLLER

106. PWER HOUSE MONITORING THROUGH RADIO FREQUENCY

107. DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL USING RADIO FREQUENCY ()SUITABLE FOR ROBOTIC ARM (TWO ANGLE)

108. DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL FROM PC COM PORT()SUITABLE FOR ROBOTIC ARM (TWO ANGLE)

109. DC MOTOR SPEED CONTROL THROUGH PUSH SWITCHES()

110. TELEPHONE CALLS LOGGER ( LOGS ALL incoming and outgoing CALLS TO PC)

111. RFID TX AND RX KIT WITH TWO IDS ( SECURITY APPLICATION)

112. RFID TX AND RX KIT WITH TWO IDS ( ROUTE MAP APPLICATION)

113. RFID TX AND RX KIT WITH TWO IDS ( ATTENDANCE REGISTER)

114. HOME APPLIANCES CONTROL THROUGH PC

115. SAFE LANDING SYSTEM

116. BUILD YOUR OWN // PROGRAMMER

117. BUILD YOUR OWN EMBEDDED DEVELOPMENT BOARD PC

118. REAL-TIME INDUSTRIAL PROCESS CONTROL AND MONITORING USING GSM PHONES

119. LINE FOLLOWER ROBOT

120. LIGHT FOLLOWER ROBOT

121. INFRA RED CONTROL FOR PC

122. DRIVER ALERT

123. CONTACT LESS TECHO GENERATOR

124. HEART BEAT MONITOR WITH WAVE ON LCD(PIC BASED)

125. IR FOLLOWER ROBOT

126. PARKING RADAR

127. MULTI CORE CABLE TESTER

128. KITCHEN TIMER

129. ROOM THERMOMETER

130. DIGITAL LOCK

131. PHOTIC PHONE

132. PIC LCF METER

133. RADIO FREQUENCY REMOTE CONTROL BOARD (CONTROL EIGHT RELAYS)

134. MICROCONTROLLER BASED SECURITY DIAL UP WITH EVENT LOGGING TO PC

135. HOME AUTOMATION USING GSM

136. GSM IVRS

137. AUTOMATIC TOLL TAX WITH VOICE USING

138. INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION & MONITORING SYSTEM

The electric motor:

Electric motors are devices that convert electrical energy into kinetic energy of rotation, by the flow of electric currents through magnetic fields.

Electric motors of various types are extremely common objects. It has been estimated that the average affluent household in the Western World utilizes about 60 electric motors, excluding those in the family cars!

Electric motors are basically of two types, those working off direct current, and those working off alternating current.

The principle that a current flowing through a conductor which is placed in a magnetic field results in a mechanical effect, that is the conductor experiences a force, is exploited in electric motors. Note that heat is also produced, so there is never a 100% conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy.

In its most basic form, an electric motor consists of a rectangular coil of insulated wire, which makes up the ARMATURE, or moving part of the motor. The COMMUTATOR acts as a current-reversing switch after every half-revolution of the coil.

The brushes serve to make contact between the battery and the rotating commutator, which is mounted on an insulated shaft, not shown in the picture.

When the current is switched on, it flows in opposite directions along the two segments of the coil, generating equal but opposite thrusts, that form a turning couple or torque. This tends to rotate the coil (anticlockwise in the diagram shown above at the left, which shows the combination of current, field and thrust, F.) The momentum of the coil carries it past the point where the current is short-circuited, and beyond that point, the current is reversed in the coil, but the thrusts remain in the same direction, ensuring the continuous rotation of the coil while the current is flowing. The diagram above right shows how Fleming's left-hand rule may be applied to establish the direction of the force, with reference to the wire labelled B, where the current comes out of the plane of the screen. If the direction of the current, or if the poles of the magnet, are reversed, rotation will proceed in the opposite direction.

Simple practical direct current (D.C.) motors can have a permanent magnet to supply the flux. This forms part of the stator of the motor. An armature, wound with many coils of wire, is the rotor. In practice, the motor is designed with a large number of coils, resulting in a smooth rotary motion.

The generator:

When a coil of conducting wire is rotated in a magnetic field, electromagnetic induction results in an induced current flowing through the loop. In this way, mechanical energy is converted to electrical energy. The device is called a GENERATOR or DYNAMO .
The generator will produce an electromotive force that will vary sinusoidally with the angle made by the coil and the applied field (this is discussed in detail in the topic on Alternating Currents). Thus the direction of the current will vary , and the current so produced is called an ALTERNATING CURRENT. A better name for the device is ALTERNATOR.

If, instead of slip rings, a commutator is used, direct currents may be generated. The current produced by a single coil produces a direct current, in that the polariry of the emf

that is generated remains the same throughout the cycles of revolution. The value of the emf does however change cyclically, as shown in the diagram on the left. Such a situation gives rise to a so-called RIPPLE-CURRENT.

A smoothing out of the ripples is obtained by having two or more coils.
Note that this is analogous to an electric motor: the motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy, while the generator converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. Generators DO NOT create electricity out of nothing!

Basic Electricity - Electrical Definition

Basic electricity is described in many ways. When an electric circuit flows through a conductor, a magnetic field (or "flux") develops around the conductor. The highest flux density occurs when the conductor is formed into a coil having many turns. In electronics and basic electricity, a coil is usually known as an inductor. If a steady DC current is run through the coil, you would have an electromagnet - a device with the properties of a conventional magnet, except you can turn it on or off by placing a switch in the circuit.

Basic Electrical Theory

There are four basic electrical quantities that we need to know:
Current
Potential Difference (Voltage)
Power
Resistance

Electrical Current

Current is a flow of charge. Each electron carries a charge of 1.6 × 10-19 coulombs. This is far too small to be any use, so we consider electricity to flow in packets called coulombs. When there is a flow of 1 coulomb per second, a current of 1 amp is flowing. Current is measured in ampères, or amps (A).

Potential Difference

Potential difference is often referred to as voltage. There are several ways of defining voltage; the correct physics definition is energy per unit charge, in other words, how big a job of work each lump of charge can do.

Power in a Circuit

Power in a circuit can be worked out using the simple relationship:
Power (W) = Voltage (V) × Current (A)

Electrical Resistance

This is the opposition to the flow of an electric current.
There's reciprocity in the interaction between electron flow and magnetism. If you sweep one pole of a magnet quickly past an electrical conductor (at a right angle to it), a voltage will be momentarily "induced" in the conductor. The polarity of the voltage will depend upon which pole of the magnet you're using, and in which direction it sweeps past the conductor.
This phenomenon becomes more apparent when the conductor is formed into a coil of many turns.

Figure 1 shows a coil mounted close to a magnet that is spinning on a shaft. As the north pole of the magnet sweeps past the coil, a voltage is induced in the coil, and, if there is a "complete" circuit, current will flow. As the south pole of the magnet sweeps past, a voltage of opposite polarity is induced, and current flows in the opposite direction.

This relationship in basic electricity is the fundamental operating principle of a generator. The output, known as alternating current, is the type of power that electric utility companies supply to businesses and homes. A practical generator would likely have two coils mounted on opposite sides of the spinning magnet and wired together in a series connection. Because the coils are in a series, the voltages combine, and the voltage output of the generator will be twice that of each coil.

Figure 2 is a graph of the voltage produced by such a generator as a function of time. Let's assume that this happens to be a 120-volt, 60-Hz generator. The voltage at one point in the cycle momentarily passes through 0 volts, but it's headed for a maximum of 169.7 volts. After that point, the voltage declines, passing through 0 volts, then reverses its polarity, and has a negative "peak" of -169.7 volts.

This curve is known as a sine wave since the voltage at any point is proportional to the sine of the angle of rotation. The magnet is rotating 60 times a second, so the sine wave repeats at the same frequency, making the period of a single cycle one-sixtieth of a second.

Electricity appears in two forms: alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC). Direct current does not change directions-- the electron flow is always from the negative pole to the positive pole-- although as we mentioned before, the electrons themselves don't really "move," it's the holes that are created that "move." Direct current is almost always what is used inside of electronic devices to power the various internal components, but it is a harmful thing in audio signals, which are alternating current. Alternating current does change direction-- standard household electricity is alternating current, because of its flexibility in traveling long distances. It changes direction at a specific frequency-- 60 times per second, or 60 Hz (in the United States, Japan, and a couple of other countries; in Europe the standard is 50 Hz). Audio signals vary their direction-alternation according to the frequency in question.

AC - ALTERNATING CURRENT

Alternating current or AC electricity is the type of electricity commonly used in homes and businesses throughout the world.
While the flow of electrons through a wire in direct current (DC) electricity is continuous in one direction, the current in AC electricity alternates in direction. The back-and-forth motion occurs between 50 and 60 times per second, depending on the electrical system of the country.
AC is created by an AC electric generator, which determines the frequency. What is special about AC electricity is that the voltage in can be readily changed, thus making it more suitable for long-distance transmission than DC electricity. But also, AC can employ capacitors and inductors in electronic circuitry, allowing for a wide range of applications.

DC - DIRECT CURRENT

In a direct-current system, it's easy to determine voltage because it is nonvarying or varies slowly over time. You can simply make a measurement with a DC voltmeter. But in an AC circuit, the voltage is constantly changing.

Electrical engineers state the voltage of an AC sine wave as the RMS (root-mean-square), a value equal to the peak value of the sine wave divided by the square root of two, which is approximately 1.414. If you know the RMS voltage, you can multiply it by the square root of two to calculate the peak voltage of the curve. If you were to power a light bulb from 120V(RMS) AC, you would get the same amount of light from the bulb as you would by powering it from 120V DC. Yet another device uses electromagnetic induction: the transformer.

Just as an iron core improves the inductance of a coil, it has the same positive effect in a transformer, and most power transformers are wound on iron cores.
In order to understand how electricity is created and works it is necessary to look at how all matter is structured. All matter is made up of molecules that have a certain number of atoms, for example one molecule of water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen giving a symbol of H 2 O. All other matter also has a symbol like this and is made up of atoms.

To be able to understand electricity however, the atom must be broken down even further into a nucleus, electrons and protons. The nucleus is made up of positively charged protons and neutrally charged neutrons that generally balance the number of negatively charged electrons, which are moving around the nucleus in a similar manner to the planets circling the sun.

The outer ring of electrons is called the Valency Shell and the electrons contained in this ring are called Valence Electrons. These are the electrons which are knocked or forced out to form a flow of electricity. If one or more electrons are moved out of the the atom it will leave the atom with more protons than electrons, which means that the atom will be positively charged.

One rule that is very prevalent in all forms of electricity, and also magnetism, is that like charges, or poles, repel and unlike charges, poles, will attract. This means that a positively charged object will attract a negatively charged one, but if both charges are the same then they will repel each other.

Electrical Safety

Electrically powered equipment, such as hot plates, stirrers, vacuum pumps, electrophoresis apparatus, lasers, heating mantles, ultrasonicators, power supplies, and microwave ovens are essential elements of many word areas. These devices can pose a significant hazard to workers, particularly when mishandled or not maintained. Many electrical devices have high voltage or high power requirements, carrying even more risk. Large capacitors found in many laser flash lamps and other systems are capable of storing lethal amounts of electrical energy and pose a serious danger even if the power source has been disconnected.

Electrical Hazards

The major hazards associated with electricity are electrical shock and fire. Electrical shock occurs when the body becomes part of the electric circuit, either when an individual comes in contact with both wires of an electrical circuit, one wire of an energized circuit and the ground, or a metallic part that has become energized by contact with an electrical conductor.

The severity and effects of an electrical shock depend on a number of factors, such as the pathway through the body, the amount of current, the length of time of the exposure, and whether the skin is wet or dry. Water is a great conductor of electricity, allowing current toflow more easily in wet conditions and through wet skin. The effect of the shock may range from a slight tingle to severe burns to cardiac arrest. The chart below shows the general relationship between the degree of injury and amount of current for a 60-cycle hand-to-foot path of one second's duration of shock. While reading this chart, keep in mind that most electrical circuits can provide, under normal conditions, up to 20,000 milliamperes of current flow

Current	Reaction
1 Milliampere	Perception level
5 Milliamperes	Slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing
6-30 Milliamperes	Painful shock; "let-go" range
50-150 Milliamperes	Extreme pain, respiratory arrest, severe muscular contraction
1000-4,300 Milliamperes	Ventricular fibrillation
10,000+ Milliamperes	Cardiac arrest, severe burns and probable death

In addition to the electrical shock hazards, sparks from electrical equipment can serve as an ignition source for flammable or explosive vapors.

Even loss of electrical power can result in extremely hazardous situations. Flammable or toxic vapors may be released as a chemical warms when a refrigerator or freezer fails. Fume hoods may cease to operate, allowing vapors to be released into the work area. If magnetic or mechanical stirrers fail to operate, safe mixing of reagents may be compromised.

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Preventing Electrical Hazards

There are various ways of protecting people from the hazards caused by electricity, including insulation, guarding, grounding, and electrical protective devices. Workers can significantly reduce electrical hazards by following some basic precautions:

	Inspect wiring of equipment before each use. Replace damaged or frayed electrical cords immediately.
	Use safe work practices every time electrical equipment is used.
	Know the location and how to operate shut-off switches and/or circuit breaker panels. Use these devices to shut off equipment in the event of a fire or electrocution.
	Limit the use of extension cords. Use only for temporary operations. In all other cases, request installation of a new electrical outlet.
	Use only multi-plug adapters equipped with circuit breakers or fuses.
	Place exposed electrical conductors (such as those sometimes used with electrophoresis devices) behind Plexiglas shields.
	Minimize the potential for water or chemical spills on or near electrical equipment.

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Insulation

All electrical cords should have sufficient insulation to prevent direct contact with wires. It is particularly important to check all cords before each use, since corrosive chemicals or solvent vapors may erode the insulation.

Damaged cords should be repaired or taken out of service immediately, especially in wet environments such as cold rooms and near water baths.

Guarding

Live parts of electric equipment operating at 50 volts or more (i.e., electrophoresis devices) must be guarded against accidental contact. Plexiglas shields may be used to protect against exposed live parts.

Grounding

Only equipment with three-prong plugs should be used. The third prong provides a path to ground that helps prevent the buildup of voltages that may result in an electrical shock or spark. This does not guarantee that no one will receive a shock, be injured, or be killed. It will, however, substantially reduce the possibility of such accidents, especially when used in combination with other safety measures.

Circuit Protection Devices

Circuit protection devices are designed to automatically limit or shut off the flow of electricity in the event of a ground-fault, overload, or short circuit in the wiring system. Fuses, circuit breakers, and ground-fault circuit interrupters are three well-known examples of such devices.

Fuses and circuit breakers prevent over-heating of wires and components that might otherwise create hazards for operators. They disconnect the circuit when it becomes overloaded. This overload protection is very useful for equipment that is left on for extended periods of time, such as stirrers, vacuum pumps, drying ovens, Variacs and other electrical equipment.

The ground-fault circuit interrupter, or GFCI, is designed to shutoff electric power if a ground fault is detected. The GFCI is particularly useful near sinks and wet locations. Since GFCIs can cause equipment to shutdown unexpectedly, they may not be appropriate for certain apparatus. Portable GFCI adapters (available in most safety supply catalogs) may be used with a non-GFCI outlet.

Motors

In areas where volatile flammable materials are used, motor-driven electrical equipment should be equipped with non-sparking induction motors or air motors. Avoid series-wound motors, such as those generally found in vacuum pumps, rotary evaporators and stirrers. Series-wound motors are also usually found in household appliances such as blenders, mixers, vacuum cleaners and power drills. These appliances should not be used unless flammable vapors are adequately controlled.

Safe Work Practices

The following practices may reduce risk of injury or fire when working with electrical equipment:

	Avoid contact with energized electrical circuits.
	Disconnect the power source before servicing or repairing electrical equipment.
	When it is necessary to handle equipment that is plugged in, be sure hands are dry and, when possible, wear nonconductive gloves and shoes with insulated soles.
	If it is not unsafe to do so, work with only one hand, keeping the other hand at your side or in your pocket, away from all conductive material. This precaution reduces the likelihood of accidents that result in current passing through the chest cavity.
	Minimize the use of electrical equipment in cold rooms or other areas where condensation is likely. If equipment must be used in such areas, mount the equipment on a wall or vertical panel.
	If water or a chemical is spilled onto equipment, shut off power at the main switch or circuit breaker and unplug the equipment.
	If an individual comes in contact with a live electrical conductor, do not touch the equipment, cord or person. Disconnect the power source from the circuit breaker or pull out the plug using a leather belt.

Before Buying Electrical Appliances

To get great value from electrical appliances it is better to be careful and observant before buying the electrical appliances. A good electric appliance is one that you will find from a credible dealer. You have probably bought electronics in your house and even before using them they cease to function or offer poor performance. The only way to avoid this is by buying quality and new electrical appliances from reputable dealers.

There are easy ways in which you can recognize and evaluate the worth of an electrical appliance.The first thing you need to do is check the voltage that it operates under, check whether it is suitable and functioning. Some electrical appliances are designed differently and the electricity capacity may not be suitable for your house, so before buying check the electrical capacity and whether it will be enough when installing it in the house. Most electrical appliances come with manual features, so how about read through the manual and check out if all the features are available.

Many electric appliances may come with incomplete features so it will be wise to check the specifications.Since some electrical appliances are complicated to use get the detailed user manual and read through the safety handling measures of the appliance.

Before buying an electrical appliance you also need to check out the energy efficiency and whether it will be proficient for use in your house. Most of the electrical brands are usually counterfeit and their efficiency ends after one week of using them. Before buying beware of the brand that you buy. Before buying an appliance you need to consider the space you are going to accommodate the appliance. An electronic appliance produces heat while operating, so buy an appliance that will fit and have enough space for functioning.Electronic appliances will vary depending on their functions. There are kitchen appliances which are used in the kitchen and they are; cookers, microwaves, refrigerators, dish washers, kettles, toasters, blenders, coffee machines and many more. Most of the kitchen appliances are medium in size and handling them becomes easier. Before buying the kitchen appliances consider how easy it will be to handle them after buying.Living room appliances also need a lot of care when buying.

Televisions, DVD, VCR ‘S, audio, pods and cameras are some of the electronic appliances that are available. When buying an electronic like a television there are numerous features you need to look out for. First of all you need to check which brand is the television you are looking to buy. The brand name of an electronic appliance is very important, because it goes a long way in assuring you advantage from the equipment. Due to the modern technology incorporated in most of the electronic appliances today it is important to ask for a warranty when buying. A warranty will come in handy when your appliance develops some hitches. If you want quality and durable electronic appliances go for new ones rather than the second hand appliances.

Small Electrical Appliances

Small appliance refers to a class of home appliances that are portable or semi-portable or which are used on tabletops, countertops, or other platforms. Such items are contrasted with major appliances, which are typically fixtures that cannot be easily moved. All appliances are intended to perform, enable, or assist in performing a job or changing a status, such as the humidity of a room. In this way, they can be differentiated from other portable electrical items that provide only entertainment. Some items not typically considered appliances, such as lamps, can be used as appliances if they are used to cook or warm food.

Many small appliances are powered by electricity. The appliance may use a permanently attached cord which is plugged into a wall outlet or a detachable cord. The appliance may have a cord storage feature. A few hand-held appliances use batteries, which may be disposable or rechargeable. Some appliances consist of an electrical motor upon which is mounted various attachments so as to constitute several individual appliances, such as a blender, a food processor, or a juicer. Many stand mixers, while functioning primarily as a mixer, have attachments which can perform additional functions.

A few gas-powered appliances exist for use in situations where electricity is not expected to be available, but these are typically larger and not as portable as most small appliances. Items that perform the same function as small appliances but are hand powered are generally referred to as tools or gadgets, for example a hand-powered meat grinder.

Some small appliances perform the same or similar function as their larger counterparts. For example, a toaster oven is a small appliance that performs a similar function as an oven. Small appliances often have a home version and a commercial version. The commercial, or industrial, version is designed to be used nearly continuously in a restaurant or other similar setting. Commercial appliances are typically connected to a more powerful electrical outlet, are larger and stronger, have more user-serviceable parts, and cost significantly more.

Small appliances which are defective or improperly used or maintained may cause house fires and other property damage, or may harbor bacteria if not properly cleaned. It is important that users read the instructions carefully and that appliances that use a grounded cord be attached to a grounded outlet. Because of the risk of fire, some appliances have a short detachable cord that is connected to the appliance magnetically. If the appliance is moved further than the cord length from the wall, the cord will detach from the appliance.